Entrepreneurial self-efficacy among first-year undergraduates: Gender, creative self-efficacy, leadership self-efficacy, and field of study

Abstract

Objective: To contribute to a better understanding of the factors that influence university students’ confidence in their ability to engage in entrepreneurial behaviours.

Research Design & Methods: Participants were 1741 first-year students (792 women, 949 men) from two Spanish universities (Mage = 18.76, SD = 1.82). They were enrolled in degree programmes in two broad fields: engineering and architecture, and social sciences and law. Using a quantitative cross-sectional design, we obtained measures of creative self-efficacy, leadership self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy.

Findings: Results showed that both leadership self-efficacy and creative self-efficacy predicted entrepreneurial self-efficacy, although creative self-efficacy was the variable that contributed most to the expected change in entrepreneurial self-efficacy. There were also differences in entrepreneurial self-efficacy according to gender and field of study, with students enrolled in a technical field and men in general scoring higher. Mediation-moderation analysis showed that creative self-efficacy mediated the relationship between gender and entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and also that the field of study buffered the effect of gender on entrepreneurial self-efficacy.

Implications & Recommendations: The results of this study showed that entrepreneurial self-efficacy is predicted by creative self-efficacy and leadership self-efficacy, and hence both these variables should be addressed by training initiatives aimed at promoting entrepreneurship among undergraduates, particularly among young women. Moreover, our results highlighted the importance of taking into consideration individuals’ educational backgrounds when analysing students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy.

Contribution & Value Added: This research contributes to the literature on entrepreneurship by identifying factors that influence the entrepreneurial self-efficacy of university students. The findings highlight the importance of considering creative self-efficacy when analysing students’ entrepreneurial development. Furthermore, we show that creative self-efficacy has a mediating effect on the association between gender and entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and also that this relationship is moderated by students’ fields of study. Overall, these results suggest that reinforcing the creative self-efficacy of women could help to close the gender gap in entrepreneurial self-efficacy. It might also be useful to design specific training initiatives for undergraduates enrolled in social sciences, the aim of which would be to foster an entrepreneurial culture and encourage them to recognize their potential role as entrepreneurs.

Keywords

gender; entrepreneurship; self-efficacy; leadership; creativity

Author Biography

Paula Alvarez-Huerta

Researcher at Mondragon University. Her Ph.D. dealt with higher education students' perceptions towards innovation. Her research interests include the topics of entrepreneurial education and the construction of the university student social identity.

Alexander Muela

Professor at the  University of the Basque Country. His areas of research interest include social entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial education, and organizational psychology.

Inaki Larrea

Professor at Mondragon University. He has lead different research projects related to educational quality and its impact on various educational stages. He is currently involved in a major research project aimed at the analysis of the personal and professional profiles of university students.

References

1. Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 30(5), 595-621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x
2. Alsos, G.A., Ljunggren, E., & Hytti, U. (2013). Gender and innovation: State of the art and a research agenda. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5(3), 236-256. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-06-2013-0049
3. Alvarez-Huerta, P., Larrea, I., Muela, A., & Vitoria, J.R. (2019). Self-efficacy in first-year university students: a descriptive study. 5th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd’19). http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/HEAd19.2019.9226
4. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman and Company.
5. Barton, M., Schaefer, R., & Canavati, S. (2018). To be or not to be a social entrepreneur: Motivational drivers amongst American business students. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 61, 9-35. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2018.060101
6. Bobbio, A., & Manganelli, A.M. (2009). Leadership Self-Efficacy Scale: A new multidimensional instrument. TPM-Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 16(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM.16.1.1
7. Borghans, L., Duckworth, A.L., Heckman, J.J., & Ter Weel, B. (2008). The economics and psychology of personality traits. Journal of Human Resources, 43(4), 972-1059. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00019387
8. Bowman, N.A., Miller, A., Woosley, S., Maxwell, N.P., & Kolze, M.J. (2019). Understanding the link between noncognitive attributes and college retention. Research in Higher Education, 60(2), 135-152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9508-0
9. Carlsson, B., Braunerhjelm, P., McKelvey, M., Olofsson, C., Persson, L., & Ylinenpää, H. (2013). The evolving domain of entrepreneurship research. Small Business Economics, 41(4), 913-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9503
10. Chen, C.C., Greene, P.G., & Crick, A. (1998). Does entrepreneurial self-Efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers?. Journal of Business Venturing, 13, 295-316. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00029-3
11. Coleman, S., & Kariv, D. (2014). Deconstructing entrepreneurial self-efficacy: A gendered perspective on the impact of ESE and community entrepreneurial culture on the financial strategies and performance of new firms. Venture Capital, 16(2), 157-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691066.2013.863063
12. Dempsey, D., & Jennings, J. (2014). Gender and entrepreneurial self-efficacy: A learning perspective. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 6(1), 28-49. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-02-2013-0013
13. Díaz-García, M.C., & Jiménez-Moreno, J. (2010). Entrepreneurial intention: The role of gender. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6(3), 261-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-008-0103-2
14. Dwyer, L.P. (2019). Leadership self-efficacy: Review and leader development implications. Journal of Management Development, 38(8), 637-650. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-03-2019-0073
15. Edwards-Schachter, M., García-Granero, A., Sánchez-Barrioluengo, M., Quesada-Pineda, H., & Amara, N. (2015). Disentangling competences: Interrelationships in creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 16, 27-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2014.11.006
16. European Union. (2019). Key competences for lifelong learning. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2766/291008
17. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175-191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
18. Fuller, B.B., Liu, Y., Bajaba, S., Marler, L.E., & Pratt, J. (2018). Examining how the personality, self-efficacy, and anticipatory cognitions of potential entrepreneurs shape their entrepreneurial intentions. Personality and Individual Differences, 125, 120-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.005
19. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2019). 2018/19 Global Report. Retrieved from https://www.gemconsortium.org/report on November 20, 2022.
20. Giones, F., Brem, A., Pollack, J.M., Michaelis, T.L., Klyver, K., & Brinckmann, J. (2020). Revising entrepreneurial action in response to exogenous shocks: Considering the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 14, e00186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00186
21. Gutman, L., & Schoon, I. (2013). The impact of non-cognitive skills on outcomes for young people. A literature review. Education Endowment Foundation.
22. Halberstadt, J., Timm, J., Kraus, S., & Gundolf, K. (2019). Skills and knowledge management in higher education: How service learning can contribute to social entrepreneurial competence development. Journal of Knowledge Management, 23(10), 1925-1948. https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-12-2018-0744
23. Henry, C., Foss, L., & Ahl, H. (2016). Gender and entrepreneurship research: A review of methodological approaches. International Small Business Journal, 34(3), 217-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614549779
24. Higgins, D., Refai, D., & Keita, D. (2018). Focus point: The need for alternative insight into the entrepreneurial education paradigm. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 31(3), 225-242. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.1466851
25. Hmieleski, K.M., & Corbett, A.C. (2007). The contrasting interaction effects of improvisational behavior with entrepreneurial self-efficacy on new venture performance and entrepreneur work satisfaction. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(4), 482-496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2007.04.002
26. Huszczo, G., & Endres, M.L. (2017). Gender differences in the importance of personality traits in predicting leadership self-efficacy. International Journal of Training and Development, 21(4), 304-317. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijtd.12113
27. Ip, C.Y., Liang, C., Wu, S.C., Law, K.M.Y., & Liu, H.C. (2018). Enhancing social entrepreneurial intentions through entrepreneurial creativity: A comparative study between Taiwan and Hong Kong. Creativity Research Journal, 30(2), 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2018.1446744
28. Karwowski, M. (2011). It doesn’t hurt to ask... but sometimes it hurts to believe: Polish students’ creative self-efficacy and its predictors. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 5(2), 154-164. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021427
29. Karwowski, M., Lebuda, I., & Wisniewska, E. (2018). Measuring creative self-efficacy and creative personal identity. The International Journal of Creativity and Problem Solving, 28(1), 45-57.
30. Kickul J., Wilson, F., Marlino, D., & Barbosa, S. D. (2008). Are misalignments of perceptions and self-efficacy causing gender gaps in entrepreneurial intentions among our nation’s teens?. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15(2), 321-335. https://doi.org/10.1108/14626000810871709
31. Ko, S., & Butler, J.E. (2007). Creativity: A key link to entrepreneurial behavior. Business Horizons, 50(5), 365-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2007.03.002
32. Lanero, A., Vázquez, J.L., & Aza, C.L. (2016). Social cognitive determinants of entrepreneurial career choice in university students. International Small Business Journal: Researching Entrepreneurship, 34(8), 1053-1075. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242615612882
33. Lans, T., Blok, V., & Wesselink, R. (2014). Learning apart and together: Towards an integrated competence framework for sustainable entrepreneurship in higher education. Journal of Cleaner Production, 62, 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.03.036
34. Lent, R.W., & Brown, S.D. (2019). Social cognitive career theory at 25: Empirical status of the interest, choice, and performance models. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.06.004
35. Mathisen, G.E., & Bronnick, K.S. (2009). Creative self-efficacy: An intervention study. International Journal of Educational Research, 48(1), 21-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2009.02.009
36. Mauer, R., Neergaard, H., & Linstad, A.K. (2017). Self-Efficacy: Conditioning the Entrepreneurial Mindset. In Revisiting the Entrepreneurial Mind, 293-317. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0443-0
37. McCormick, M.J. (2001). Self-efficacy and leadership effectiveness: Applying social cognitive theory to leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 8(1), 22-33. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F107179190100800102
38. McCormick, M.J., Tanguma, J., & López-Forment, A.S. (2002). Extending self-efficacy theory to leadership: A review and empirical test. Journal of Leadership Education, 1(2), 34-49. https://doi.org/10.12806/V1/I2/TF1
39. Mueller, S.L., & Conway Dato-on, M. (2013). A cross cultural study of gender-role orientation and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-011-0187-y
40. Mueller, S.L., & Conway Dato-On, M. (2008). Gender-role orientation as a determinant of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1142/S108494670800082X
41. Muthén, L.K., Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2016). Regression and mediation analysis using Mplus. Muthén and Muthén.
42. Nabi, G., Walmsley, A., & Holden, R. (2015). Pushed or pulled? Exploring the factors underpinning graduate start-ups and non-start-ups. Journal of Education and Work, 28(5), 481-506. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2013.805189
43. Naz, S., Li, C., Zaman, U., & Rafiq, M. (2020). Linking proactive personality and entrepreneurial intentions: A serial mediation model involving broader and specific self-efficacy. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 6(4), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc6040166
44. Newman, A., Obschonka, M., Schwarz, S., Cohen, M., & Nielsen, I. (2019). Entrepreneurial self-efficacy: A systematic review of the literature on its antecedents and outcomes, and an agenda for future research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 110, 403-419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.05.012
45. Nowiński, W., Haddoud, M.Y., Lančarič, D., Egerová, D., & Czeglédi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44(2), 361-379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359
46. Obschonka, M., Hakkarainen, K., Lonka, K., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2017). Entrepreneurship as a twenty-first century skill: Entrepreneurial alertness and intention in the transition to adulthood. Small Business Economics, 48(3), 487-501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-016-9798-6
47. Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R.K., Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Stuetzer, M. (2011). Nascent entrepreneurship and the developing individual: Early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence and venture creation success during the career. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(1), 121-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.005
48. OECD. (2017). Social and emotional skills: Well-being, connectedness and success. http://www.oecd.org/education/school/UPDATED Social and Emotional Skills – Well-being, connectedness and success.pdf (website).pdf
49. OECD. (2019a). The future of work. OECD Employment Outlook 2019. https://doi.org/10.1787/2e9fb244-nl
50. OECD. (2019b). Transformative competencies for 2030. www.oecd.org/education/2030-project
51. OECD/European Union. (2019). The missing entrepreneurs 2019: Policies for inclusive entrepreneurship. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264188167-en
52. Paglis, L.L., & Green, S.G. (2002). Leadership self-efficacy and managers’ motivation for leading change. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(2), 215-235. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.137
53. Peixoto, F., & Almeida, L.S. (2010). Self-concept, self-esteem and academic achievement: Strategies for maintaining self-esteem in students experiencing academic failure. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 25(2), 157-175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-010-0011-z
54. Pilegaard, M., Moroz, P.W., & Neergaard, H. (2010). An auto-ethnographic perspective on academic entrepreneursnip: Implications for research in the social sciences and humanities. Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(1), 46-61. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.24.1.46
55. Rafiei, N., Yarmohammadian, M.H., & Keshtiaray, N. (2019). Defective cycle of entrepreneurship education in humanities in higher education. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 22(2), 1-16.
56. Redmond, P., Gutke, H., Galligan, L., Howard, A., & Newman, T. (2017). Becoming a female leader in higher education: Investigations from a regional university. Gender and Education, 29(3), 332-351. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1156063
57. Robbins, T.L., & Kegley, K. (2010). Playing with Thinkertoys to build creative abilities through online instruction. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 5(1), 40-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2009.07.001
58. Sax, L.J., & Newhouse, K.N.S. (2019). Disciplinary field specificity and variation in the STEM gender gap. New Directions for Institutional Research, 179, 45-71. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.20275
59. Schediwy, L., Loots, E., & Bhansing, P. (2018). With their feet on the ground: a quantitative study of music students’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship education. Journal of Education and Work, 31(7-8), 611-627. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2018.1562160
60. Sheppard, L.D. (2018). Gender differences in leadership aspirations and job and life attribute preferences among U.S. undergraduate students. Sex Roles, 79(9-10), 565-577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0890-4
61. Shin, Y., & Eom, C. (2014). Team proactivity as a linking mechanism between team creative efficacy, transformational leadership, and risk-taking norms and team creative performance. Journal of Creative Behavior, 48(2), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.42
62. Singer, M. (1991). The relationship between employee sex, length of service and leadership aspirations: A study from valence, self-efficacy and attribution perspectives. Applied Psychology, 40(4), 417-436. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1991.tb01001.x
63. Sorgner, A. (2015). Non-cognitive skills, occupational choices, and entrepreneurship: An empirical analysis of entrepreneurs’ career choices. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 25(2), 208-230. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2015.069286
64. Tantawy, M., Herbert, K., McNally, J.J., Mengel, T., Piperopoulos, P., & Foord, D. (2021). Bringing creativity back to entrepreneurship education: Creative self-efficacy, creative process engagement, and entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2021.e00239
65. Teixeira, A.A.C., & Forte, R.P. (2017). Prior education and entrepreneurial intentions: the differential impact of a wide range of fields of study. Review of Managerial Science, 11(2), 353-394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-015-0188-2
66. Tellhed, U., Bäckström, M., & Björklund, F. (2017). Will I fit in and do well? The importance of social belongingness and self-efficacy for explaining gender differences in interest in STEM and HEED majors. Sex Roles, 77(1-2), 86-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0694-y
67. Tierney, P., & Farmer, S.M. (2002). Self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance. Academy of Management Journal, 45(6), 1137-1148. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069429
68. Tsang, T.L. (2019). A quantitative analysis examining differences between US humanities and STEM students’ propensity toward innovation. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 43(2), 149-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2017.1357069
69. Vázquez-Burgete, J.L., Lanero, A., & Raisiene, A.G. (2012). Entrepreneurship education in humanities and social sciences. Are students qualified to start a business?. Business: Theory and Practice, 13(1), 27-35. https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2012.03
70. Wardana, L.W., Narmaditya, B.S., Wibowo, A., Mahendra, A.M., Wibowo, N.A., Harwida, G., & Rohman, A.N. (2020). The impact of entrepreneurship education and students’ entrepreneurial mindset: The mediating role of attitude and self-efficacy. Heliyon, 6(9), e04922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04922
71. Wegemer, C.M., & Eccles, J.S. (2019). Gendered STEM career choices: Altruistic values, beliefs, and identity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1.110, 28-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.10.020
72. Wieland, A.M., Kemmelmeier, M., Gupta, V.K., & McKelvey, W. (2019). Gendered cognitions: A socio-cognitive model of how gender affects entrepreneurial preferences. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 31(3-4), 178-197. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2018.1551787
73. Wilson, F., Kickul, J., Marlino, D., Barbosa, S.D., & Griffiths, M.D. (2009). An analysis of the role of gender and self-efficacy in developing female entrepreneurial interest and behavior. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 14(2), 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1084946709001247
74. Zhang, X., & Zhou, J. (2014). Empowering leadership, uncertainty avoidance, trust, and employee creativity: Interaction effects and a mediating mechanism. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 124(2), 150-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.02.002
75. Zhang, Z., & Arvey, R.D. (2009). Rule breaking in adolescence and entrepreneurial status: An empirical investigation. Journal of Business Venturing, 24(5), 436-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2008.04.009
76. Zhao, H., Hills, G.E., & Seibert, S.E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90( 6), 1265-1272. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1265
77. Zhou, Q., Hirst, G., & Shipton, H. (2012). Promoting creativity at work: The role of problem-solving demand. Applied Psychology, 61(1), 56-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00455.