Vol. 14 No. 2 (2026)
June 2026

Articles

Employee resilience in the post-merger integration phase: Unveiling the role of employee cognitive uncertainty

Published 2026-06-01

  • Anna Blajer-Gołębiewska
    • ,
  • Arkadiusz Kozłowski
    • ,
  • Florian Jais
    • ,
  • Magdalena Markiewicz

Anna Blajer-Gołębiewska
University of Gdańsk

Arkadiusz Kozłowski
University of Gdansk

Florian Jais
University of Gdańsk

Magdalena Markiewicz
University of Gdańsk

Abstract

Objective: The article aims to empirically examine how employee resilience (ER) during post-merger integration (PMI) develops through two complementary behavioural mechanisms: the reduction of cognitive uncertainty (CU) driven by visionary leadership (VL) and communication effectiveness (CE), and organisational identification (OI) as a source of adaptive capacity.

Research Design & Methods: We applied structural equation modelling (covariance-based SEM and PLS Path Modelling methods) using data from a unique survey of 305 office workers across 295 mergers and acquisitions (M&A) in 2014-2023, evaluating their experiences during the PMI phase.

Findings: Results confirmed the proposed dual-mechanism structure. Namely, CU negatively affects ER and serves as a central mediating mechanism linking organisational practices to adaptive behaviour and CE influences ER exclusively through the reduction of CU (full mediation). Meanwhile VL exerts both a direct positive effect and an indirect effect via reduced CU (partial mediation). In parallel, OI independently and positively predicts ER. The effects of control variables (gender, age, residence, and firm size) were not significant.

Implications & Recommendations: The findings indicate that ER during PMI is not merely an individual trait but a behavioural capability shaped by organisational practices. Managers can strengthen ER by systematically reducing employees’ CU through CE and VL, while simultaneously fostering identification with the newly formed organisation.

Contribution & Value Added: This study contributes to M&A integration research by introducing a dual-mechanism framework that integrates cognitive (uncertainty reduction) and identity-based (organisational identification) pathways to explain how resilience develops during PMI. It reconceptualises CU as a manageable cognitive state that directly conditions adaptive capacity. By uncovering the mechanisms underlying resilient behaviour, the study deepens theoretical understanding of employee adaptation in conditions of profound organisational change.

Keywords

mergers and acquisitions, post-integration phase, employee resilience, behavioural adaptation, cognitive uncertainty, organisational identification

(PDF) Save

Author Biography

Anna Blajer-Gołębiewska

PhD in economics, Associate Professor of Economics and Finance in the Department of Microeconomics at the Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk, Poland. Her research interests include behavioural economics, investor behaviour, corporate reputation, and the SME sector.

Arkadiusz Kozłowski

PhD in economics, Assistant Professor in the Department of Statistics at the Faculty of Management, University of Gdansk. His research interests include survey sampling and statistical modelling.

Florian Jais

PhD candidate in the Microeconomics Department at the Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk, Poland. His research interests include mergers and acquisitions, and behavioural economics.

Magdalena Markiewicz

PhD in economics, Assistant Professor in Economics and Finance in the Department of International Business at the Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk, Poland. Her research interests include mergers and acquisitions, financial markets, currency internationalisation, academic and business social responsibility, and banking.

References

  1. Arshad, S., Anum, L., & Imran, A. (2023). Protean Career Attitude as an Antecedent of Employee Resilience. Journal of Policy Research, 9(4), 254-263. https://doi.org/10.61506/02.00148
  2. Al Hosani, Y., Jabeen, F., Paul, J., & Stachowicz-Stanusch, A. (2020). Antecedents of Employee Alienation and Its Impact on Individual Work Performance During Post-Merger Integration (PMI). Journal of Organizational Change Management, 33(6), 1085-1110. https://doi.org/10.1108/jocm-03-2020-0085
  3. Allen, J., Jimmieson, N.L., Bordia, P., & Irmer, B.E. (2007). Uncertainty during Organizational Change: Managing Perceptions through Communication. Journal of Change Management, 7(2), 187-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697010701563379
  4. Al-Najjar N.I., & Shmaya E. (2015). Uncertainty and disagreement in equilibrium models. Journal of Political Economy, 123(4), 778-808. https://doi.org/10.1086/681241
  5. Amiot, C.E., Terry, D.J., Jimmieson, N.L., & Callan, V.J. (2006). A Longitudinal Investigation of Coping Processes During a Merger: Implications for Job Satisfaction and Organizational Identification. Journal of Management, 32(4), 552-574. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306287542
  6. Angwin, D.N., Mellahi, K., Gomes, E., & Peter, E. (2016). How Communication Approaches Impact Mergers and Acquisitions Outcomes. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(20), 2370-2397. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2014.985330
  7. Appelbaum, S.H., Cameron, A., Ensink, F., Hazarika, J., Attir, R., Ezzedine, R., & Shekhar, V. (2017). Factors that Impact the Success of an Organizational Change: a Case Study Analysis. Industrial and Commercial Training, 49(5), 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1108/ict-02-2017-0006
  8. Bansal, A., & King, D.R. (2022). Communicating Change Following an Acquisition. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 33(9), 1886-1915. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2020.1803947
  9. Bernards, B. (2023). Do Visionary and Servant Leaders Reduce Cognitive Uncertainty of Professionals? A Study of Team-Based Settings in Public Organizations. Public Management Review, 25(6), 1059-1081. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2021.2005326
  10. Bernards, B. (2024). Cognitive Uncertainty and Employees’ Daily Innovative Work Behavior: The Moderating Role of Ambidextrous Leadership. Review of Public Personnel Administration 45(4), 647-670. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371x241233759
  11. Bernards, B., van der Voet, J., van der Pas, S., & Groeneveld, S. (2021). Organizational Rules and Cognitive Uncertainty Among Public Professionals: A Daily Diary Study. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 41(4), 792-813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371x20943932
  12. Birkinshaw, J., Bresman, H., & Håkanson, L. (2000). Managing the post‐acquisition integration process: How the human integration and task integration processes interact to foster value creation. Journal of Management Studies, 37(3), 395-425. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00186
  13. Bokati, L., & Kreinovich, V. (2019). Decision Theory Explains “Telescoping Effect” – That Our Time Perception Is Biased. Journal of Uncertain Systems, 13(2), 100-103. Retrieved from https://jus.worldscientific.com/pdf/jusVol13No2paper04.pdf on July 29, 2024.
  14. Bordia, P., Hobman, E., Jones, E., Gallois, C., & Callan, V.J. (2004). Uncertainty during Organizational Change: Types, Consequences, and Management Strategies. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(4), 507-532. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jobu.0000028449.99127.f7
  15. Bradburn N. M., & Rips, L.J., & Shevell, S.K. (1987). Answering Autobiographical Questions: The Impact of Memory and Inference on Surveys. Science, 236(4798), 157-161. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3563494
  16. Breevaart, K., & van Woerkom, M. (2024). Building Employee Engagement and Resilience Through Strengths-Based Leadership. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 27(25), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2024.28
  17. Buss, M., & Kearney, E. (2024). Navigating the Unknown: Uncertainty Moderates the Link Between Visionary Leadership, Perceived Meaningfulness, and Turnover Intentions. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 97(3), 776-782. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12500
  18. Caniëls, M.C.J., & Curseu P. (2024). Contagious resilience – how leaders’ resilient behaviour promotes followers’ resilient behaviour. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 45(5), 754-775. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-09-2023-0474
  19. Cantó-Milà, N., Moncunill Piñas, M., & Seebach, S. (2024). Emotion memories and emotional expressions in autobiographical interviews. Emotions and Society, 6(1), 115-132. https://doi.org/10.1332/263169021X16717828216614
  20. Carleton, J.R., & Lineberry, C.S. (2004). Achieving Post-Merger Success: A Stakeholder's Guide to Cultural Due Diligence, Assessment, and Integration. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. A Wiley Imprint.
  21. Cho, I., Park, H., & Dahlgaard-Park, S.M. (2017). The Impacts of Organisational Justice and Psychological Resilience on Employee Commitment to Change in an M&A Context. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 28(9-10), 989-1002. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2017.1303890
  22. Cooke, F.L., Wood, G., Wang, M., & Li, A.S. (2021). Riding the tides of mergers and acquisitions by building a resilient workforce: a framework for studying the role of human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 31(3), Article 100747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2020.100747
  23. Cooper, C., Flint-Taylor, J., & Pearn, M. (2013). Building resilience for success: A resource for managers and organizations. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  24. Dao, M.A., & Bauer, F. (2021). Human integration following M&A: Synthesizing different M&A research streams. Human Resource Management Review, 31(3), 100746. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HRMR.2020.100746
  25. Dequech, D. (2000). Fundamental Uncertainty and Ambiguity, Eastern Economic Journal, 26(1), 41-60, Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268512115_Fundamental_Uncertainty_and_Ambiguity on July 29, 2024.
  26. Diduc, S. (2022). Integration team members’ approaches to uncertainty management in M&A. European Management Journal, 40(6), 917-931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2022.10.002
  27. Dimas, I.D., Rebelo, T., Lourenço, P.R., & Pessoa, C.I.P. (2018). Bouncing Back from Setbacks: On the Mediating Role of Team Resilience in the Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and Team Effectiveness. The Journal of Psychology, 152(6), 358-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1465022
  28. Edwards, M.R., Lipponen, J., Kaltiainen, J., & Hornsey, M. (2024). Do Pre-Merger Loyalties Help or Hinder Post-Merger Retention? A Longitudinal Study. British Journal of Management, 35, 1746-1762. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12789
  29. Enke, B., & Graeber, T. (2023). Cognitive Uncertainty. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 138(4), 2021-2067. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjad025
  30. Finney, S.J., & DiStefano, C. (2013). Nonnormal and Categorical Data in Structural Equation Modeling. In Hancock, G.R. & Mueller, R.O. (Eds.), Structural Equation Modeling: A Second Course (2nd ed., pp. 439-492). Charlotte, NC: IAP Information Age Publishing.
  31. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D.F. (1981). Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
  32. García, C.J., & Herrero, B. (2022). Corporate Entrepreneurship and Governance: Mergers and Acquisitions in Europe. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 182, 121845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121845
  33. Gemson, J. (2024). Acquisitions of private-equity-backed private companies: Insights from acquirer’s choice of target and the implications on deal value through the subprime crisis. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 12(3), 7-24. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2024.120301
  34. Gomes, E., Angwin, D.N., Weber, Y., & Tarba, S.Y. (2013). Critical Success Factors through the Mergers and Acquisitions Process: Revealing Pre- and Post-M&A Connections for Improved Performance. Thunderbird International Business Review, 55(1), 13-35. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.21521
  35. Green, S.B., & Yang, Y. (2009). Reliability of Summed Item Scores Using Structural Equation Modeling: An Alternative to Coefficient Alpha. Psychometrika, 74(1), 155-167. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11336-008-9099-3
  36. Haynie, J.J., Harris, S.G., & Flynn, C.B. (2016). The Mitigating Effects of Core Self-Evaluations in Uncertain Environments. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 37(2), 226-240. https://doi.org/10.1108/lodj-05-2014-0098
  37. Henseler, J., Ringle, C.M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
  38. Jensen, U.T., Andersen, L.B., Bro, L.L., Bøllingtoft, A., Eriksen, T.L.M., Holten, A.-L., Jacobsen, C.B., Ladenburg, J., Nielsen, P.A., Salomonsen, H.H., Westergård-Nielsen, N., & Würtz, A. (2019). Conceptualizing and Measuring Transformational and Transactional Leadership. Administration & Society, 51(1), 3-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399716667157
  39. Johnson, K.J. (2016). The Dimensions and Effects of Excessive Change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 29(3), 445-459. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1108/jocm-11-2014-0215 on August 5, 2024.
  40. Kaur, G., & Sharma, R.K. (2024). Developing the Framework for Mergers and Acquisitions Success: Evidence from the Indian Banking Sector. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 16(1), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13132-024-01746-x
  41. Kensinger, E.A. (2007). Negative Emotion Enhances Memory Accuracy: Behavioral and Neuroimaging Evidence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(4), 213-218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00506.x
  42. Khan, Z., Soundararajan, V., Wood, G., & Ahammad, M.F. (2020). Employee Emotional Resilience during Post-Merger Integration Across National Boundaries: Rewards and the Mediating Role of Fairness Norms. Journal of World Business, 55(2), 100888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2017.06.009
  43. Klok, Y., Kroon, D.P., & Khapova, S.N. (2022). The role of emotions during mergers and acquisitions: A review of the past and a glimpse into the future. International Journal of Management Review, 25, 587-613. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12322
  44. Kroon, D.P., & Noorderhaven, N.G. (2018). The Role of Occupational Identification During Post-Merger Integration. Group and Organization Management, 43(2), 207-244. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601116666168
  45. Kroon, D.P., Noorderhaven, N., & Leufkens, A. (2009). Organizational Identification and Cultural Differences: Explaining Employee Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions during Postmerger Integration. Advances in Mergers and Acquisitions, 8, 19-42. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-361X(2009)0000008004
  46. Kuntz, J.R.C., Näswall, K., & Malinen, S. (2016). Resilient Employees in Resilient Organizations: Flourishing Beyond Adversity. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 9(2), 456-462. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2016.39
  47. Li, J., & Tong, Y. (2021). Does narcissistic leadership enhance employee resilience? A moderated mediation model of goal-directed energy and psychological availability. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 42(5), 819-836. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-11-2020-0521
  48. Liang, F., & Cao, L. (2021). Linking Employee Resilience with Organizational Resilience: The Roles of Coping Mechanism and Managerial Resilience. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 14, 1063-1075. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.S318632
  49. Lipponen, J., Wisse, B., & Jetten, J. (2017). The Different Paths to Post-Merger Identification for Employees from High and Low Status Pre-Merger Organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(5), 692-711. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2159
  50. Liu Y., Liu S., Liu R., & Liu, Y. (2024). Leader mindfulness and employee safety behaviors in the workplace: a moderated mediation study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 39(3), 287-303. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-03-2022-0128
  51. Mael, F., & Ashforth, B.E. (1992). Alumni and Their Alma Mater: A Partial Test of the Reformulated Model of Organizational Identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13(2), 103-123. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030130202
  52. Mascareño, J., Rietzschel, E., & Wisse, B. (2020). Envisioning Innovation: Does Visionary Leadership Engender Team Innovative Performance Through Goal Alignment?. Creativity and Innovation Management, 29(1), 33-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12341
  53. McEwen, K. (2022). Building Resilience at Work: A Practical Framework for Leaders. Journal of Leadership Studies, 16(2), 42-49. https://doi/10.1002/jls.21814
  54. Miller, V.D., Johnson, J.R., & Grau, J. (1994). Antecedents to Willingness to Participate in a Planned Organizational Change. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 22(1), 59-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909889409365387
  55. Mühlemann, N.S., Steffens, N.K., Ullrich, J., Haslam, S.A., & Jonas, K. (2022). Understanding Responses to an Organizational Takeover: Introducing the Social Identity Model of Organizational Change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 123(5), 1004-1023. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000386
  56. Näswall, K., Kuntz, J., & Malinen, S.K. (2015). Employee Resilience Scale (EmpRes): Technical Report. Resilient Organisations Research Report, 4, Retrieved from https://www.resorgs.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Resilient_Organisations_2015-04_Employee_Resilience_Scale.pdf on July 29, 2024.
  57. Näswall, K., Malinen, S., Kuntz, J., & Hodliffe, M. (2019). Employee Resilience: Development and Validation of a Measure. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 34(5), 353-367. https://doi.org/10.1108/jpm-02-2018-0102
  58. Nguyen, Q., Kuntz, J.R.C., Näswall, K., & Malinen, S. (2016). Employee resilience and leadership styles: The moderating role of proactive personality and optimism. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 13-21. Retrieved from https://www.psychology.org.nz/journal-archive/Employee-resilience-and-leadership-styles.pdf on July 29, 2024.
  59. O’Driscoll, M.P., & Beehr, T.A. (1994). Supervisor Behaviors, Role Stressors and Uncertainty as Predictors of Personal Outcomes for Subordinates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(2), 141-155. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030150204
  60. Paumen, T., Kroon, D., & Khapova, S.N. (2022). Consequences of M&A Team Composition for Deal Outcomes: An Inductive Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 931025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931025
  61. Peng, C., Liang, Y., Yuan, G., Xie, M., Harmat, L., Bonaiuto, F. (2023). How servant leadership predicts employee resilience in public organizations: a social identity perspective. Current Psychology, 42, 31405-31420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04138-z
  62. Plimmer, G., Kuntz, J., Berman, E., Malinen, S., Näswall, K., & Franken, E. (2023). The Negative Relationships Between Employee Resilience and Ambiguity, Complexity, and Inter-Agency Collaboration. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 82(2), 248-270. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8500.12587
  63. Raaphorst, N. (2018). How to Prove, How to Interpret and What to Do? Uncertainty Experiences of Street-Level Tax Officials. Public Management Review, 20(4), 485-502. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2017.1299199
  64. Rafferty, A.E., & Griffin, M.A. (2006). Perceptions of Organizational Change: A Stress and Coping Perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1154-1162. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1154
  65. Ringle, C.M., Wende, S., & Becker, J.-M. (2024). SmartPLS 4. Bönningstedt: SmartPLS Retrieved from https://www.smartpls.com on July 29, 2024.
  66. Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.I02
  67. Sarstedt, M., Hair, J.F., Ringle, C.M., Thiele, K.O., & Gudergan, S.P. (2016). Estimation issues with PLS and CBSEM: Where the bias lies!. Journal of Business Research, 69(10), 3998-4010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.06.007
  68. Senior, C., Fearon, C., Mclaughlin, H., & Manalsuren, S. (2017). How Might Your Staff React to News of an Institutional Merger? A Psychological Contract Approach. International Journal of Educational Management, 31(3), 364-382. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-05-2016-0087
  69. Soontornchaiya, P., & Charoensukmongkol, P. (2024). Interaction Effect of Management Communication and Workplace Formalization on Shared Goals and Commitment of Employees During Post-Merger and Acquisition Integration. International Journal of Business Communication, (OnlineFirst). https://doi.org/10.1177/23294884241235661
  70. Stam, D., Lord, R.G., van Knippenberg, D., & Wisse, B. (2014). An Image of Who We Might Become: Vision Communication, Possible Selves, and Vision Pursuit. Organization Science, 25(4), 1172-1194. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2013.0891
  71. Steigenberger, N. (2017). The challenge of integration: A review of the M&A integration literature. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19(4), 408-431. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12099
  72. Sułkowski, Ł., Seliga, R., & Woźniak, A. (2019). Strategic Challenges of Mergers and Acquisitions in Higher Education Sector. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 7(2), 199-215. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2019.070211
  73. Sung, W., Woehler, M.L., Fagan, J.M., Grosser, T.J., Floyd, T.M., & Labianca, G.J. (2017). Employees’ Responses to an Organizational Merger: Intraindividual Change in Organizational Identification, Attachment, and Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(6), 910-934. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000197
  74. Thakur, M., & Yadav, M. (2025). Unraveling the Drivers of Post-Merger Identification in Facilitating Organizational Changes during M&As. Journal of Change Management, 25(2), 145-168, https://doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2025.2467063
  75. Tonkin, K., Malinen, S., Näswall, K., & Kuntz, J.C. (2018). Building Employee Resilience Through Wellbeing in Organizations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 29(2), 107-124. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21306
  76. Trenerry, B., Chng, S., Wang, Y., Suhaila, Z.S., Lim, S.S., Lu, H.Y., & Oh, P.H. (2021). Preparing Workplaces for Digital Transformation: An Integrative Review and Framework of Multi-Level Factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620766
  77. van Oorschot, K.E., Nujen, B.B., Solli‐Sæther, H., & Mwesiumo, D.E. (2023). The complexity of post‐mergers and acquisitions reorganization: Integration and differentiation. Global Strategy Journal, 13(3), 673-699. https://doi.org/10.1002/gsj.1454
  78. Voorhees, C.M., Brady, M.K., Calantone, R., & Ramirez, E. (2016). Discriminant validity testing in marketing: An analysis, causes for concern, and proposed remedies. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44(1), 119-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-015-0455-4
  79. Wang, D., & Wang, P. (2024). Effect of employee resilience on organizational resilience in construction projects: considering the role of project tasks. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 31(11), 4236-4254. https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-08-2022-0797
  80. Xenikou, A. (2014). The Cognitive and Affective Components of Organisational Identification: The Role of Perceived Support Values and Charismatic Leadership. Applied Psychology, 63(4), 567-588. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12001
  81. Zumbo, B.D., Gadermann, A.M., & Zeisser, C. (2007). Ordinal Versions of Coefficients Alpha and Theta for Likert Rating Scales. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 6(1), 21-29. https://doi.org/10.56801/10.56801/v6.I.279

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.