Venezuelan migrants in Peru and their entrepreneurial intention during the Covid-19 pandemic
Abstract
Objective: The article aims to understand the influence of how attitude (ATT), the perception of country support (PCS) for entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurship self-efficacy (ESE) support entrepreneurial intention (EI) among Venezuelan migrants living in Peru.
Research Design & Methods: In total, 305 migrants from Venezuela living in Peru completed the online questionnaire. It contained 21 items that evaluated the variables to explain the EI. In the study, we employed the partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) technique.
Findings: We found that ATT (0.591) and PCS for entrepreneurship (0.204) showed a direct and significant influence on ESE, while ESE showed a direct and significant influence (0.823) on the EI. The research model explained 67.7% of the EI. The analysis using bootstrapping technique showed the significance of the path coefficients.
Implications & Recommendations: Current research showed the effect of ATT and PCS on ESE, which governments and organizations can use to create plans to promote entrepreneurship among migrants.
Contribution & Value Added: Governments can use the study results to develop and improve new regulations to encourage entrepreneurship. The novelty of this study is the use of the PLS-SEM technique.
Keywords
Migrants, entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship intention, COVID-19, Venezuela, Peru
References
ACNUR. (2022). Venezuelan situation [Situación de Venezuela]. Retrieved from https://www.acnur.org/situacion-en-venezuela.html on 4 April 2022.
Agu, C.F., Stewart, J., McFarlane-Stewart, N., & Rae, T. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic effects on nursing education: looking through the lens of a developing country. International Nursing Review, 68(2), 153-158. https://doi.org/10.1111/inr.12663
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Al-Ghazali, B.M., & Afsar, B. (2021). Narcissism and entrepreneurial intentions: The roles of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and environmental complexity. The Journal of High Technology Management Research, 32(1), 100395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hitech.2020.100395
Alvarez-Risco, A., Del-Aguila-Arcentales, S., Yáñez, J.A., Rosen, M.A., & Mejia, C.R. (2021). Influence of technostress on academic performance of university medicine students in Peru during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability, 13(16), 8949. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13168949
Alvarez-Risco, A., Estrada-Merino, A., Rosen, M.A., Vargas-Herrera, A., & Del-Aguila-Arcentales, S. (2021). Factors for Implementation of Circular Economy in Firms in COVID-19 Pandemic Times: The Case of Peru. Environments, 8(9), 95. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/8/9/95
Alvarez-Risco, A., Mlodzianowska, S., García-Ibarra, V., Rosen, M.A., & Del-Aguila-Arcentales, S. (2021). Factors Affecting Green Entrepreneurship Intentions in Business University Students in COVID-19 Pandemic Times: Case of Ecuador. Sustainability, 13(11), 6447. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116447
Alvarez-Risco, A., Mlodzianowska, S., Zamora-Ramos, U., & Del-Aguila, S. (2021). Green entrepreneurship intention in university students: The case of Peru. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 9(4), 85-100. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2021.090406
Armitage, C.J. (2003). Beyond attitudinal ambivalence: effects of belief homogeneity on attitude-intention-behaviour relations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33(4), 551-563. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.164
Aron Said, V., & Castillo Jara, S. (2022). Reacting to Change within Change: Adaptive Leadership and the Peruvian Response to Venezuelan Immigration. International Migration, 60(1), 57-76. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12761
Aydogmus, M. (2021). Investigation of the effect of social entrepreneurship on professional attitude and self-efficacy perception: a research on prospective teachers. Studies in Higher Education, 46(7), 1462-1476. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1673719
Bachmann, A.K., Maran, T., Furtner, M., Brem, A., & Welte, M. (2021). Improving entrepreneurial self-efficacy and the attitude towards starting a business venture. Review of Managerial Science, 15(6), 1707-1727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-020-00394-0
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bandura, A. (1992). Self-efficacy mechanism in psychobiologic functioning. In Self-efficacy: Thought control of action. (pp. 355-394). Hemisphere Publishing Corp.
Bird, B. (1988). Implementing Entrepreneurial Ideas: The Case for Intention. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 442-453. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306970
Bizri, R.M. (2017). Refugee-entrepreneurship: a social capital perspective. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 29(9-10), 847-868. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2017.1364787
Brzozowski, J. (2017). Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Economic Adaptation: A Critical Analysis. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 5(2), 159-176. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2017.050209
Cavich, J. & Chinta, R. (2021). Nascent Entrepreneurs, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, and the Moderators of Race, Gender, and Government Support. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2020-0542
Chatzisarantis, N., Hagger, M., Biddle, S., & Smith, B. (2005). The stability of the attitude-intention relationship in the context of physical activity. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(1), 49-61. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410410001730070
Chen, Y., & He, Y. (2011). The impact of strong ties on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Chinese Entrepreneurship, 3(2), 147-158. https://doi.org/10.1108/17561391111144573
City of New York. (2022). Immigrant Business Services. Retrieved from https://www1.nyc.gov/nycbusiness/article/immigrant-business-initiative on 1 January 2022.
Dai, F., Wang, K.Y., & Teo, S.T.T. (2011). Chinese immigrants in network marketing business in Western host country context. International Business Review, 20(6), 659-669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2011.02.015
Diverse City. (2021). Immigrant Entrepreneur Program. Retrieved from https://www.dcrs.ca/our-services/employment-programs/immigrant-entrepreneur-program on 1 January 2022.
Duan, C., Kotey, B., & Sandhu, K. (2021). A systematic literature review of determinants of immigrant entrepreneurship motivations. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2021.1997490
Elnadi, M., & Gheith, M.H. (2021). Entrepreneurial ecosystem, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intention in higher education: Evidence from Saudi Arabia. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(1), 100458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100458
Fichter, K., & Tiemann, I. (2018). Factors influencing university support for sustainable entrepreneurship: Insights from explorative case studies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 175, 512-524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.031
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Glinka, B., & Brzozowska, A. (2015). Immigrant entrepreneurs: In search of identity. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 3(3), 51. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2015.030304
Harima, A. (2022). Theorizing Disembedding and Re-Embedding: Resource Mobilization in Refugee Entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2022.2047799
Jafari-Sadeghi, V., Nkongolo-Bakenda, J.-M., Dana, L.-P., Anderson, R.B., & Biancone, P.P. (2020). Home Country Institutional Context and Entrepreneurial Internationalization: The Significance of Human Capital Attributes. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 18(2), 165-195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-019-00264-1
Jain, R., & Ali, S.W. (2013). Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Marketing Orientation and Attitude Orientation of Indian Entrepreneurs. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 22(1), 71-95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971355712469155
Karlsson, T., & Moberg, K. (2013). Improving perceived entrepreneurial abilities through education: Exploratory testing of an entrepreneurial self efficacy scale in a pre-post setting. The International Journal of Management Education, 11(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2012.10.001
Krueger, N.F., & Carsrud, A.L. (1993). Entrepreneurial intentions: Applying the theory of planned behaviour. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 5(4), 315-330. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985629300000020
Krueger, N.F., Reilly, M.D., & Carsrud, A.L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5), 411-432. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0
Lee, Y.S., & Eesley, C. (2018). The persistence of entrepreneurship and innovative immigrants. Research Policy, 47(6), 1032-1044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2018.03.007
Liu, X., Lin, C., Zhao, G., & Zhao, D. (2019). Research on the Effects of Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy on College Students’ Entrepreneurial Intention. Frontiers in psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00869
Lopez-Odar, D., Alvarez-Risco, A., Vara-Horna, A., Chafloque-Cespedes, R., & Sekar, M.C. (2020). Validity and reliability of the questionnaire that evaluates factors associated with perceived environmental behavior and perceived ecological purchasing behavior in Peruvian consumers. Social Responsibility Journal, 16(3), 403-417. https://doi.org/10.1108/SRJ-08-2018-0201
Lumpkin, G.T., & Dess, G.G. (1996). Clarifying the Entrepreneurial Orientation Construct and Linking It To Performance. Academy of Management Review, 21(1), 135-172. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1996.9602161568
Ma, H., Zhang, Y.C., Butler, A., Guo, P., & Bozward, D. (2021). Entrepreneurial performance of new-generation rural migrant entrepreneurs in China. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-07-2020-0456
Maj, J., & Kubiciel-Lodzihska, S. (2020). Entrepreneurial tendencies of migrants working in the care sector in Poland. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 8(3), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2020.080302
Maritz, A., & Brown, C. (2013). Enhancing entrepreneurial self-efficacy through vocational entrepreneurship education programmes. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 65(4), 543-559. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2013.853685
Mawson, S., & Kasem, L. (2019). Exploring the entrepreneurial intentions of Syrian refugees in the UK. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25(5), 1128-1146. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-02-2018-0103
McKee, M., & Stuckler, D. (2020). If the world fails to protect the economy, COVID-19 will damage health not just now but also in the future. Nature Medicine, 26(5), 640-642. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0863-y
Mei, H., Ma, Z., Jiao, S., Chen, X., Lv, X., & Zhan, Z. (2017). The Sustainable Personality in Entrepreneurship: The Relationship between Big Six Personality, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, and Entrepreneurial Intention in the Chinese Context. Sustainability, 9(9), 1649. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091649
Meister, A.D., & Mauer, R. (2019). Understanding refugee entrepreneurship incubation – an embeddedness perspective. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25(5), 1065-1092. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-02-2018-0108
Munir, H., Jianfeng, C., & Ramzan, S. (2019). Personality traits and theory of planned behavior comparison of entrepreneurial intentions between an emerging economy and a developing country. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 25(3), 554-580. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-05-2018-0336
Peterson, M. (2020). Modeling country entrepreneurial activity to inform entrepreneurial-marketing research. Journal of Business Research, 113, 105-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.042
Poblete, C., & Mandakovic, V. (2021). Innovative outcomes from migrant entrepreneurship: a matter of whether you think you can, or think you can’t. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 17(2), 571-592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-020-00705-7
Pulka, B.M., Ramli, A., & Mohamad, A. (2021). Entrepreneurial competencies, entrepreneurial orientation, entrepreneurial network, government business support and SMEs performance. The moderating role of the external environment. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 28(4), 586-618. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-12-2018-0390
Quispe-Cañari, J.F., Fidel-Rosales, E., Manrique, D., Mascaró-Zan, J., Huamán-Castillón, K.M., Chamorro–Espinoza, S.E., Garayar–Peceros, H., Ponce–López, V.L., Sifuentes-Rosales, J., Alvarez-Risco, A., Yáñez, J.A., & Mejia, C.R. (2021). Self-medication practices during the COVID-19 pandemic among the adult population in Peru: A cross-sectional survey. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 29(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2020.12.001
Rey-Martí, A., Ribeiro-Soriano, D., & Sánchez-García, J.L. (2016). Giving back to society: Job creation through social entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Research, 69(6), 2067-2072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.12.010
Ringle, C.M., Wende, S., & Becker, J.M. (2015). SmartPLS 3. Boenningstedt: SmartPLS GmbH.
Rojas Román, B., Moscoso, S., Chung, S.A., Limpias Terceros, B., Álvarez-Risco, A., & Yáñez, J.A. (2020). Tratamiento de la COVID-19 en Perú y Bolivia y los riesgos de la automedicación [COVID-19; tratamiento; estrategia; fármacos; automedicación; Perú; Bolivia.]. 2020, 53(2). http://www.revfarmacia.sld.cu/index.php/far/article/view/435
Rostros Venezolanos. (2021). How many Venezuelans are there in Peru? [¿Cuántos venezolanos hay en el Perú?]. Retrieved from https://rostrosvenezolanos.com/cuantos-venezolanos-peru-2021-ilegales on 1 January 2022
Salisu, J.B. (2020). Entrepreneurial training effectiveness, government entrepreneurial supports and venturing of TVET students into IT related entrepreneurship – An indirect-path effects analysis. Heliyon, 6(11), e05504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05504
Schmutzler, J., Andonova, V., & Diaz-Serrano, L. (2018). How Context Shapes Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy as a Driver of Entrepreneurial Intentions: A Multilevel Approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 43(5), 880-920. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258717753142
Shi, L., Yao, X., & Wu, W. (2019). Perceived university support, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, heterogeneous entrepreneurial intentions in entrepreneurship education: The moderating role of the Chinese sense of face. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(2), 205-230. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-04-2019-0040
Streukens, S., & Leroi-Werelds, S. (2016). Bootstrapping and PLS-SEM: A step-by-step guide to get more out of your bootstrap results. European Management Journal, 34(6), 618-632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2016.06.003
Tonglet, M., Phillips, P.S., & Read, A.D. (2004). Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour to investigate the determinants of recycling behaviour: a case study from Brixworth, UK. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 41(3), 191-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2003.11.001
Tyszka, T., Cieślik, J., Domurat, A., & Macko, A. (2011). Motivation, self-efficacy, and risk attitudes among entrepreneurs during transition to a market economy. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 40(2), 124-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2011.01.011
UNCTAD. (2020). e-Learning Course on Entrepreneurship for Migrants and Refugees. Retrieved from https://unctad.org/es/node/26896 on 1 January 2022
Ven Informado. (2021). Migration in Peru: human capital with high economic potential for the country [Migración en Perú: capital humano con alto potencial económico para el país]. Retrieved from https://www.veninformado.pe/emprendimientos-de-migrantes on 1 January 2022
Wang, Z., & Sun, Z. (2021). From Globalization to Regionalization: The United States, China, and the Post-Covid-19 World Economic Order. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 26(1), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-020-09706-3
Wardana, L.W., Narmaditya, B.S., Wibowo, A., Mahendra, A.M., Wibowo, N.A., Harwida, G., & Rohman, A.N. (2020). The impact of entrepreneurship education and students’ entrepreneurial mindset: the mediating role of attitude and self-efficacy. Heliyon, 6(9), e04922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04922
Wennberg, K., Pathak, S., & Autio, E. (2013). How culture moulds the effects of self-efficacy and fear of failure on entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 25(9-10), 756-780. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2013.862975
World Bank. (2019). Venezuelan Migration: The 4,500-Kilometer Gap Between Desperation and Opportunity. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/11/26/migracion-venezolana-4500-kilometros-entre-el-abandono-y-la-oportunidad on 2 April 2022
World Trade Center Denver. (2020). Could you be a candidate for our global trade activator inmigrant program?. Retrieved from https://www.wtcdenver.org/global-trade-activator-immigrant-and-refugee-entrepreneurs on 1 January 2022.
Yan, J., Kim, S., Zhang, S.X., Foo, M.-D., Alvarez-Risco, A., Del-Aguila-Arcentales, S., & Yáñez, J.A. (2021). Hospitality workers’ COVID-19 risk perception and depression: A contingent model based on transactional theory of stress model. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 95, 102935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102935
Yáñez, J.A., Alvarez-Risco, A., & Delgado-Zegarra, J. (2020). Covid-19 in Peru: from supervised walks for children to the first case of Kawasaki-like syndrome. BMJ, 369, m2418. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2418
Yeasmin, N., Koivurova, T., & Kemppainen-Koivisto, R. (2021). Shaping employability for immigrants through social entrepreneurship in Lapland. Migration and Development, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2021.1879424
Yousaf, U., Ali, S.A., Ahmed, M., Usman, B., & Sameer, I. (2021). From entrepreneurial education to entrepreneurial intention: a sequential mediation of self-efficacy and entrepreneurial attitude. International Journal of Innovation Science, 13(3), 364-380. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJIS-09-2020-0133
Zhang, S.X., Chen, J., Afshar Jahanshahi, A., Alvarez-Risco, A., Dai, H., Li, J., & Patty-Tito, R.M. (2021). Succumbing to the COVID-19 Pandemic—Healthcare Workers Not Satisfied and Intend to Leave Their Jobs. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00418-6
Zhang, Z., & Chun, D. (2018). Becoming entrepreneurs: how immigrants developed entrepreneurial identities. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 24(5), 947-970. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-07-2016-0214
Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola Peru
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9532-6462
Shyla Del-Aguila-Arcentales
Master’s degree in Industrial Pharmacy (2017) from Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Peru; Professor at Escuela Nacional de Marina Mercante “Almirante Miguel Grau” in Peru. Her research interests include sustainability, entrepreneurship, international business, e-commerce, and digital business.
Universidad de Lima Peru
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0786-6555
PhD in Administration (2020, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico); Professor at the Career of International Business, Universidad de Lima. His research interests include sustainability, international business, entrepreneurship, and circular economy.
Universidad Tecnológica del Perú Peru
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9069-5317
Student in Psychology, Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Humanas, Universidad Tecnológica del Perú. His research interests include sustainability, management, entrepreneurship, and circular economy.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a CC BY-ND licence that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are asked to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) only the final version of the article, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access). We advise using any of the following research society portals: