Vol. 13 No. 4 (2025)
December 2025

Articles

Entrepreneurial strategies for national large language models: A comparative study of Bielik and PLLuM in advancing Poland’s digital sovereignty

Published 2025-12-28

  • Łukasz Sułkowski
    • ,
  • Roksana Ulatowska

Łukasz Sułkowski
Jagiellonian University in Kraków

Roksana Ulatowska
Jagiellonian University in Krakow

Abstract

Objective: In the framework of digital sovereignty, the article aims to investigate and assess the entrepreneurial models supporting the evolution of Poland’s two national large language models (LLM), i.e., Bielik (community-driven Polish LLM) and PLLuM (Polish Large Universal Model, a consortium-based initiative).

Research Design & Methods: Using a qualitative research methodology, this work focuses on two national LLMs in a case study. Contextual data were obtained through in-depth, semi-structured interviews, document analysis, and scenario-based model testing. These data were subsequently thematically analysed with the support of NVivo systematic coding software.

Findings: The results show that both institutional and agile approaches to entrepreneurship are necessary for national digital sovereignty to be ensured. A comparative analysisproves the agility ofcommunity-driven LLMs differ from institutional models with great scale found in PLLUM. Through government-supported development, grassroots innovation, and flexible deployment features Bielik contrast PLLum’s strategic scalability. By means of localised artificial intelligence innovation, both models show different but complementary approaches to forward Poland’s digital sovereignty. By means of localised artificial intelligence innovation, both models show different but complementary approaches to advancing Poland’s digital sovereignty.

Implications & Recommendations: Poland’s technological resilience and capacity for innovation at once benefit from complementary models such as Bielik and PLLuM. Policymakers should support pluralistic innovation ecosystems to guarantee strong, flexible and sovereign artificial intelligence (AI) development matched with changing national needs including digital security and technological independence. Artificial intelligence’s innovation is based on strategic public, commercial, and academic sector cooperation.

Contribution & Value Added: Examining modern and changing phenomena, this creative study of national language models (LLMs) is especially crucial. Thus conducted research focuses mostly on global, commercial models produced by multinational corporations. Therefore, it seems especially crucial to examine local, strategic, and institutional conditions for LLM development as well as their consequences on national technological autonomy and innovation.

Keywords

local large language models, entrepreneurial ecosystems, digital sovereignty, AI in Poland, public-private innovations models

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Author Biography

Łukasz Sułkowski

Professor of economic sciences and Professor of humanities. He heads the Department of Management of Higher Education Institutions at Jagiellonian University (Poland). His research interests include management in higher education, digital transformation, strategic management, entrepreneurship, and human resource management.

Roksana Ulatowska

PhD in management, Jagiellonian University, Poland. Assistant Professor at the Jagiellonian University (Poland). Her research interests include management in higher education, digital transformation, human resources management, innovation management, educational leadership.

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